Eucharistic Miracles

Kearse, Kelly P.  “The relics of Jesus and Eucharistic miracles: scientific analysis of shared AB blood type.”  Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology 21(3):1507–1510.  Nov 9, 2024.  A commentary, not a research article, that argues the shared AB blood type of several relics and Eucharistic miracles does not show a single origin, because bacteria carry the same AB molecules as humans.  Its key sources are Springer's 1961 study of blood-group activity in bacteria and the immunohaematology literature (the study of blood groups and their antibodies) that it cites; it went online on 9 November 2024 and was printed in the 2025 issue.  The article uses it as the scientific case against the AB result as proof of a common origin. ↩

1. 1a.

   Page 1508:  “Because AB antigens are shared among humans and bacteria, one cannot be certain if typing results are authentic when dealing with aged or contaminated samples using these methods.  A sample could test positive for AB without any red blood cells even being present.” ↩ ↩

2. 1b.

   Page 1507:  “Most of the population do not express either A or B antigens, termed type O (45%);  approximately 40% express only the A antigen (40%), only 11% express just B antigens, and a small proportion express both A and B antigens, approximately 4–5%.” ↩

3. 1c.

   Page 1507:  The paper says the shared AB result has been used to put.  “the odds of multiple Eucharistic miracles (and articles such as the Shroud of Turin and the Sudarium) showing a similar AB result in the order of one to 3.2 million or higher.” ↩

4. 1d.

   Page 1508:  “In certain cases, bacteria may convert some type A structures to B antigens through deacetylation, known as acquired B type”. ↩

5. 1e.

   Page 1508:  “for even the most studied of these artifacts, the Shroud of Turin, the Sudarium, and the Tunic, such typing studies have never been published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal, which is the normal pathway for such findings.” ↩

6. 1f.

   Page 1509:  “Such techniques require examination at the DNA level, which has never been done for any of the aforementioned textiles or Eucharistic miracle events.” ↩

Diocese of Salt Lake City, ad hoc committee.  “Diocese of Salt Lake City's report on the investigation into the 'bleeding host' at St. Francis Xavier Church.”  Intermountain Catholic.  Dec 18, 2015.  A report by an ad hoc committee chaired by Msgr M. Francis Mannion, on a consecrated host alleged to be bleeding at a Kearns, Utah, parish in November 2015.  The scientist the committee hired is not named and the test results were not released.  The article uses it for the church's presumption of natural causes, the week the host sat unattended in water, the mould verdict and the rebuke for displaying the host. ↩

1. 2a.

   “The Church presumes that most situations appearing to be extraordinary phenomena are actually the result of natural causes.  This is why the Church sets the evidentiary bar for proving a miracle quite high.” ↩

2. 2b.

   “A crucial element of these events was the fact that the host in question was left unprotected and unattended in a dish of water from approximately Nov. 8 – 14, 2015.” ↩

3. 2c.

   The report's spelling "Neurospora cressa" is a misspelling of N. crassa.  “the scientist, with the assistance of a blind observer, concluded that the observed change in the host could be satisfactorily and conclusively explained by natural causes, namely the growth of what is commonly known as 'red bread mold,' or red bacteria, most likely Neurospora cressa or Serratia marcescens.”  “the ad hoc committee unanimously concludes that the observed change in the host was not miraculous but resulted from the growth of red bread mold.” ↩ ↩

4. 2d.

   “the premature and imprudent public display and veneration of the host.” ↩

“List of the Eucharistic miracles.”  The Eucharistic Miracles of the World.  n.d.  Retrieved Sep 14, 2026.  Section Note to exhibitors:  The site asks exhibitors for.  “special high definition PDF to make your posters (166, size 60x80cm).”  The exhibition's online list of its cases, with 155 case links, including Paris 1290 (France) and Brussels 1370 (Belgium).  The article uses it for the number of cases the exhibition lists. ↩ ↩

Nickell, Joe.  “Eucharistic 'Miracles'.”  Skeptical Inquirer 32(3 (May/June)):16–18.  2008.  A magazine article by Joe Nickell, whose books include Relics of the Christ.  Its approach is folkloristic and documentary, and it does not engage Linoli or the microbiology.  It finds that many of the miracle stories have a suspiciously similar plot, which suggests derivation.  The article uses it for the number of panels in the exhibition and for the claim that the stories copy one plot. ↩

1. 4a.

   Section Introduction:  “no fewer than 142 are featured in a Vatican international traveling exhibition titled the 'Eucharistic Miracles of the World,' which I was able to view in Lackawanna, New York, on September 20, 2007.” ↩

2. 4b.

   Section Introduction:  “Many of the Eucharistic miracle stories have a suspiciously similar plot, which suggests derivation.  For example, at least three stories—from Lanciano, Italy, eighth century;  Regensburg, Germany, 1257;  and Bolsena, Italy, 1263—concern a priest who had doubts about the reality of transubstantiation.” ↩

Kearse, Kelly, and Frank Ligaj.  “Scientific Analysis of Eucharistic Miracles: Importance of a Standardization in Evaluation.”  Journal of Forensic Science and Research 8(1):078–088.  Nov 13, 2024.  A laboratory experiment that placed non-consecrated wheat wafers under conditions similar to those reported for many Eucharistic miracles, and inoculated some with Serratia marcescens, to test whether they would look like a bleeding host.  It found that the wafers grew reddish areas that resembled blood, and carried DNA from plants, bacteria and fungi, which the authors call a plausible alternative to the findings of earlier miracle investigations.  The article cites it for its stated, repeatable method rather than for its review of earlier cases; it was submitted on 7 November 2024 and published six days later in a low-profile journal. ↩

1. 5a.

   Page 082:  “In approximately 15% of the cases, a bright red area was noticed growing on the remaining wafer portion some 7-10 days later.” ↩

2. 5b.

   Page 082:  “In the current study using non-consecrated wafers containing reddish areas, it was noted that the water remained untainted as well …  when a small amount of blood was placed on a wafer, allowed to dry for two days, and then placed in water, within 72 hours the bloodstain was fully solubilized.” ↩ ↩

3. 5c.

   Page 085:  “the causative agent was identified as a fungal growth, Epicoccum sp., most likely Epicoccum nigrum, that exists worldwide.” ↩

4. 5d.

   Page 082:  “Reddish growth on wafers was apparent within a 24-48 hour time period”.  The Figure 3 caption says:  “Non-consecrated wafers were inoculated with Serratia marcescens and cultured for 24-48 hours on a wet surface.  The resemblance to blood is apparent.”  Page 082, section Results:  “a noticeable reddish region corresponding to the treated area was visible, having a similar appearance to that of fresh blood.” ↩

5. 5e.

   Page 082, section Results:  “blood was easily distinguished from Serratia marcescens growth by Wright's staining ... and spectroscopy ... two well established, basic techniques.” ↩

6. 5f.

   Page 081, section Materials and methods:  “Wafers were left in a dusty and dark corner for several days;  samples were then placed in approximately 200 ml of tap water in plastic 16-ounce Solo cups (Lakeforest, IL) and cultured for 7-10 days at ambient temperature and humidity.” ↩

7. 5g.

   Page 081:  “Surprisingly, we were unable to find a single instance where such a basic experiment had been performed.” ↩

8. 5h.

   Page 079:  “we (and others) searched in vain for any results or documentation from this report and contacted both the WHO and UN, who had no records of any investigation during that period.”  Serafini found that.  “someone had attached a front and back page about Lanciano to hundreds of unrelated pages of tests on Egyptian mummies”. ↩

9. 5i.

   Page 079:  “this study relies on a polyclonal antibody preparation made via a relatively unrefined immunization using whole human blood;  such preparations would be expected to be potentially cross-reactive with blood from other species.” ↩

10. 5j.

    Page 078:  The paper says the Lanciano sample.  “showed 'conspicuous accumulations of spores and of hypha of hyphomyces'”. ↩

11. 5k.

    Page 079:  “The Lanciano investigation is commendable in that it represents the first major scientific attempt to objectively evaluate the physical properties of a Eucharistic miracle in any detail.  It is unfortunate that in subsequent years fraudulent activity (by others) would become associated with these findings.” ↩

12. 5l.

    Page 079:  “The very low concentration of human DNA that was recovered is characteristic of contaminating DNA, the likely result of someone touching the sample.  This is a very different situation than having an abundant amount of human DNA, which could not be amplified.” ↩

13. 5m.

    Page 080:  “the investigators reported that the samples were positive for glycophorin A (a red blood cell marker) but tested negative using probes for muscle-desmin and myosin (both muscle-specific).  The latter result was unexpected given the proposed nature of the material.” ↩

14. 5n.

    Page 080:  The Tixtla report described the DNA as.  “completely degraded and fragmented”. ↩

15. 5o.

    Page 080:  Tixtla's immunochromatography was reported positive for human haemoglobin; the authors propose a viscosity or pH artefact and note that no control wafers were run. ↩

16. 5p.

    Page 082:  “If one compares such images with those of various Eucharistic miracles, for example, Sokolka, 2008 [26], similar features are apparent, including certain darkened areas.” ↩

17. 5q.

    Page 082, section Results:  “the examination of non-consecrated wafers (described above) under ultraviolet light showed a distinct reddish-orange fluorescence”.  By contrast,  “Like whole blood, reddish areas containing Serratia marcescens did not fluoresce under ultraviolet light”. ↩

18. 5r.

    Page 084, section Results:  The wheat product.  “aligned with [Triticum aestivum], wheat bread, Genbank accession number MG560142, with 93.07% identity.” ↩

19. 5s.

    Page 085:  “the prevalence of DNA from other species (plant, bacterial, fungal) in non-consecrated wafers offers a plausible alternative to the findings of previous Eucharistic miracle investigations.” ↩

20. 5t.

    Page 085:  “one of the major issues with the subject of Eucharistic miracles is that no standard scientific protocol exists for their examination.” ↩

21. 5u.

    Page 086:  “A positive antibody binding result is meaningless without explicit demonstration that the recognition is specific.” ↩

22. 5v.

    Page 085:  “an identical profile should be obtained in all instances, worldwide, if the claim of a single origin is legitimate.  This is very important.” ↩

23. 5w.

    Page 087:  “Premature reporting by press release of incomplete conclusions should be avoided.” ↩

Senz, Paul.  “Doubt the Real Presence? Try a Blood Miracle.”  Catholic Answers Magazine, online edition.  Jul 23, 2021.  An online magazine article that states the popular case for Eucharistic miracles.  The article cites it as the current mainstream statement of that case. ↩

1. 6a.

   Paragraph 9:  “The blood is human blood, type AB, with all signs of recent life—or sometimes current life.  On some occasions, a bleeding host will exhibit a clot on the outside but fresh blood on the inside, as with a wound in the process of healing.  The flesh comes from the left ventricle of the heart and typically shows signs of trauma and even impending death.” ↩

2. 6b.

   Paragraph 4:  “The World Health Organization, the United Nations, and others conducted studies. ... In 1976, the World Health Organization and United Nations released the results of their study.” ↩

3. 6c.

   Paragraph 2:  “While it is hard to scientifically verify such miracles (did the blood actually come from the host?  Was this cardiac tissue actually initially a piece of unleavened bread?), there is an ever-increasing corpus of Eucharistic miracles.” ↩

Aquinas, Thomas.  “Summa Theologiae III q. 76: The way in which Christ is in this sacrament.”  New Advent.  2nd, revised edition.  Translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province.  1920.  A literal English translation of question 76 of the third part of the Summa Theologiae, by the Fathers of the English Dominican Province, in its second revised edition.  The article calls it the classic statement of transubstantiation, the doctrine the relics are offered to prove. ↩

1. 7a.

   Section a. 5:  “Christ's body is not in this sacrament as in a place, but after the manner of substance”. ↩

2. 7b.

   Section a. 7:  “Christ's body as it is in this sacrament cannot be seen by any bodily eye.” ↩

3. 7c.

   Section a. 8, title:  “Whether Christ's body is truly there when flesh or a child appears miraculously in this sacrament?” ↩

4. 7d.

   Section a. 8:  “Sometimes it happens on the part of the beholders, whose eyes are so affected as if they outwardly saw flesh, or blood, or a child, while no change takes place in the sacrament.” ↩

5. 7e.

   Section a. 8:  “Consequently, it remains to be said, that, while the dimensions remain the same as before, there is a miraculous change wrought in the other accidents, such as shape, color, and the rest, so that flesh, or blood, or a child, is seen.”  “which it would be wicked to think of Christ under His proper semblance.” ↩

6. 7f.

   Section a. 8:  “Christ's body under its proper species can be seen only in one place, wherein it is definitively contained.  Hence since it is seen in its proper species, and is adored in heaven, it is not seen under its proper species in this sacrament.” ↩

7. 7g.

   Section a. 8:  “But that which appears under the likeness of flesh in this sacrament, continues for a long time;  indeed, one reads of its being sometimes enclosed, and, by order of many bishops, preserved in a pyx, which it would be wicked to think of Christ under His proper semblance.” ↩

Aquinas, Thomas.  “Summa Theologiae III qq. 74–77, Textum Leoninum.”  Corpus Thomisticum.  Edited by Roberto Busa and Enrique Alarcón.  1906.  The Latin text of the third part of the Summa Theologiae, questions 74 to 77, from the Leonine edition printed at Rome in 1906.  Roberto Busa put it onto magnetic tape by machine, and Enrique Alarcón revised it for the online Corpus Thomisticum.  The article uses it for the Latin of the sentence about the flesh-like appearance kept in a pyx, which the English translation footnote also gives. ↩

1. 8a.

   Section III q. 76 a. 8 co. [50665]:  “Hoc autem quod sub specie carnis in hoc sacramento apparet, diu permanet, quinimmo quandoque legitur esse inclusum, et multorum episcoporum consilio in pixide reservatum;  quod nefas est de Christo sentire secundum propriam speciem.” ↩

Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith.  Norms for proceeding in the Discernment of alleged Supernatural Phenomena.  May 17, 2024.  The Vatican doctrine office's rules for how a bishop judges alleged supernatural events, such as bleeding hosts, approved on 4 May 2024 and in force from 19 May 2024.  They replace the 1978 norms, under which decisions sometimes took several decades.  The article uses them for the bar on a bishop's public statements in favor of such an event, and for the admission that a supernatural verdict can later be reversed. ↩

1. 9a.

   Section Art. 1:  “The judgment of the Bishop is to be submitted to the Dicastery for approval.” ↩

2. 9b.

   Section Art. 3 § 1:  “The Diocesan Bishop is to refrain from making any public statement in favor of the authenticity or supernatural nature of such phenomena and from having any personal connection with them.” ↩

3. 9c.

   Section Art. 3 § 3:  The bishop should act:  “to prevent the spread of confused religious manifestations or the dissemination of any materials pertaining to the alleged supernatural phenomenon (such as the weeping of sacred images;  the sweating, bleeding, or mutation of consecrated hosts, etc.) to avoid fueling a sensationalistic climate.” ↩

4. 9d.

   Section Preliminary Note:  “As a rule, these potential conclusions do not include the possibility of declaring that the phenomenon under discernment is of supernatural origin—that is, affirming with moral certainty that it originates from a decision willed by God in a direct way.”  The six outcomes are listed at Art. 18. ↩

5. 9e.

   Section Preliminary Note:  “reaching a declaration affirming the 'supernaturalness' of an event, by its very nature, not only requires a suitable amount of time to carry out the analysis but it can also lead to the possibility that a judgment of 'supernatural' today might become a judgment of 'not supernatural' years later—and precisely this has happened.” ↩

6. 9f.

   Section Preliminary Note:  “since 1950, no more than six cases have been officially resolved.” ↩

7. 9g.

   Section Art. 11 § 2:  “If the extraordinary event involves any findings of an organic nature that require special laboratory and, in any case, technical-scientific investigations, the Commission will entrust the study of those elements to genuine experts in the relevant area of investigation.” ↩

8. 9h.

   Section Art. 11 § 3:  “If the phenomenon involves the Body and Blood of the Lord in the sacramental signs of bread and wine, special care should be given so that any analyses on the Eucharistic species do not result in disrespect for the Blessed Sacrament, ensuring that due reverence for it is maintained.” ↩

Linoli, Odoardo.  “Ricerche istologiche, immunologiche e biochimiche sulla carne e sul sangue del miracolo eucaristico di Lanciano (VII secolo).”  Quaderni Sclavo di Diagnostica Clinica e di Laboratorio 7(3):661–674.  Sep 1971.  A laboratory study published in September 1971 by Odoardo Linoli, head of the pathology laboratory at a provincial hospital in Arezzo, who has 48 papers indexed in MEDLINE, 1950–1994.  It ran from 18 November 1970 to 4 March 1971, tested the Flesh under the microscope and the Blood for blood group, proteins and minerals, and concluded that the Flesh is heart muscle.  The article uses it as the paper behind the Lanciano claims; its Italian title dates the event to the seventh century (VII secolo), while the National Library of Medicine's English title says 8th century. ↩ ↩

1. 10a.

   Page 661:  Title:  “DI LANCIANO (VII secolo)”.  First sentence:  “ai primi del VII secolo”.  Page 670:  “(VII secolo)”.  Page 672:  English abstract:  “the eucharistic miracle which happened in Lanciano back in the seventh century.” ↩

2. 10b.

   Page 661:  The Flesh:  “ha forma rotondeggiante con diametri di 55 e 60 mm”.  Page 662:  The Blood:  “appare sotto forma di 5 frammenti del peso complessivo di g 15,85”. ↩ ↩

3. 10c.

   Page 671:  Footnote:  “La diagnosi è pienamente sostenuta dal Prof. RUGGERO BERTELLI, Emerito di Anatomia Umana Normale nell'Università di Siena, che ringrazio sentitamente.”  The author list is Linoli alone. ↩

4. 10d.

   Page 664:  “il quadro strutturale emerso dallo studio dell'antica Carne di Lanciano si propone per un tessuto muscolare striato che per chiare, ubiquitarie unioni sinciziali fra le fibre si rivela come tessuto miocardico.”  Page 663:  The paper notes:  “per l'incolorabilità dei nuclei”. ↩

5. 10e.

   Page 665:  “La reazione di Teichmann modificata da Bertrand per l'ematina cloridrato e quella di Takayama per l'emocromogeno, sono state eseguite sull'antico Sangue di Lanciano con risultato negativo, in parallelo con campioni di sangue umano normale essiccato, che hanno fornito esito positivo.” ↩

6. 10f.

   Page 665, section Conclusioni (II., III. e IV.):  “la negatività del test di Teichmann-Bertrand e del test di Takayama non esclude la presenza di sangue, potendo tali prove divenire negative per la denaturazione del campione.” ↩

7. 10g.

   Page 669:  “Il rapporto albumina-globuline risulta di 1,62 essendo il valore normale di 1,13-1,73.” ↩

8. 10h.

   Page 665:  “La positività della ricerca delle ossidasi, genericamente indicativa per il sangue, può aversi anche in presenza di organi ricchi di fermenti, di estratti vegetali, di metalli finemente suddivisi.” ↩

9. 10i.

   Page 665:  Microscopy of the Blood showed:  “non compaiono elementi cellulari ma un materiale finemente granulare, di colorito giallo-bruno-verdastro, in unione a rari corpi estranei di probabile natura vegetale.” ↩

10. 10j.

    Page 663:  Uhlenhuth's zonal precipitation test was used, and the paper gives the reason:  “essendo state trovate difficoltà per una reazione di immunodiffusione bilaterale secondo OUCHTERLONY (1958 [10]) a causa dello scarso liquido disponibile”. ↩

11. 10k.

    Page 668:  By absorption-elution (Siracusa 1923, Fiori et al. 1963), the paper found:  “il test ha fatto rilevare che l'antico Sangue e l'antica Carne di Lanciano sono dotati degli agglutinogeni A e B;  pertanto, appartengono all'emogruppo AB”. ↩

12. 10l.

    Page 668:  “Risulta evidente che la composizione percentuale delle proteine nel liquido in esame ripete i valori noti nella chimica-clinica per il siero di sangue umano normale (HENRY, 1954 [7]).”  The five measured values and the normal ranges in the table are printed in the same section. ↩

13. 10m.

    Page 669, table Tabella 1:  Lanciano Blood: Ca 114.29 mg%, Cl 2.25 mEq/l, P 1.99 mg%.  The arithmetic mean of ten dried normal samples: Ca 3.97, Cl 34.51, P 8.98.  The row.  “Valori normali nel sangue intero”.  (Geigy, 6th ed., 1960, pp. 582–590) gives Ca 9–11. ↩

14. 10n.

    Page 670:  “L'aumento del calcio (mg 114,29%) nell'antico Sangue di Lanciano può essere, in fondata ipotesi, correlato a caduta nel calice di polvere muraria ricca di sali di calcio, oltre che a frammenti di vegetali (fiori) ritrovati all'esame istologico del Sangue.” ↩

15. 10o.

    Page 662:  Footnote on the white granules of the Flesh:  “(*) Lo studio microscopico estemporaneo ha fatto riconoscere colonie di ifomiceti, da evidente inquinamento.”  Translation: Extemporaneous microscopic study showed colonies of hyphomycetes, from evident contamination. ↩

Sanctuary of the Eucharistic Miracle, Lanciano.  The Eucharistic Miracle of Lanciano: Historical, Theological, Scientific and Photographic Documentation.  n.d.  A 45-page booklet from the shrine itself, with a preface by Fr Gabriele Iacovozzi.  It prints the early narratives and a letter by Bertelli on the histology, so it is the shrine's own case and an interested source.  The article uses it for the shrine's own admissions that the earliest narrative dates from 1631 and that the weight claim was not verified by the bishops in 1637, 1770, and 1886. ↩

1. 11a.

   The earliest narrative is.  “from an anonymous but not uninformed chronicler in the year 1631”.  and.  “the narrative of the text is based upon an earlier written text of Sebastiano Rinaldi in 1611.” ↩

2. 11b.

   The chronicler Fella.  “claims to have received confidential information in 1620 from two Friars, Antonio Scarpa and Angelo Siro, to this effect:  'In 1560 two Basilian monks came to the Convent of St. Francis;  they stole from us a parchment codex, written in Greek and in Latin, hidden between two tablets'”. ↩

3. 11c.

   “This significant phenomenon concerning the weight of the Miraculous Blood was not verified in successive tests made by the bishops (in 1637, 1770, and 1886).” ↩

4. 11d.

   Bertelli's letter:  “Even though in the preparations the nuclei and the transversal striation of the histological elements are not visible, the particular positioning of these, juxtaposed and so grouped as to constitute tiny columns, leads us to this diagnosis.”  And:  “the presence of anastomotic areas between the fibres would lead to the identification of a myocardial muscular tissue.” ↩

5. 11e.

   Bertelli's letter opens:  “Prof. Odoardo Linoli ... has submitted to my evaluation a series of histological preparations obtained from a fragment collected by the same Prof. Linoli, according to his formal declaration, from a piece of a Holy Particle preserved in a church of Lanciano.” ↩

ZENIT Staff.  “Cosa dice la scienza sul miracolo eucaristico di Lanciano: Parla il professor Edoardo Linoli, il solo ad analizzarne le reliquie.”  ZENIT.  May 3, 2005.  A ZENIT report from Rome, dated 3 May 2005, built around an interview with Edoardo Linoli before a 5 May 2005 conference at the Ateneo Pontificio Regina Apostolorum.  It repeats Linoli's 1971 findings that the flesh was human heart tissue and the blood was human and of group AB, and it is the earliest traceable printed source of the WHO claim that a commission confirmed them.  The article cites it for that claim and for Linoli's own words. ↩

1. 12a.

   ZENIT's own narration, not in quotation marks and not Linoli's words.  “Nel 1973, il Consiglio superiore dell'Organizzazione Mondiale della Sanità, (O.M.S.) nominò una Commissione scientifica per verificare, le conclusioni del medico italiano.  I lavori durarono 15 mesi con un totale di 500 esami. ... L'estratto dei lavori scientifici della Commissione medica dell'O.M.S. venne pubblicato nel dicembre 1976 a New York e a Ginevra”. ↩

2. 12b.

   The words in single quotation marks are Linoli's, reported in ZENIT's narration.  “il professor Linoli ha spiegato che 'per quanto riguarda la carne mi trovai in mano l'endocardio.  Quindi nessun dubbio che si tratta di tessuto cardiaco'.” ↩

3. 12c.

   Linoli's words to ZENIT, arguing that the AB type is rare among the local people (0.5 to 1 per cent) but common in Palestine and the Middle East (14 to 15 per cent), so the blood fits a man from that region.  “Il gruppo sanguigno AB degli abitanti del luogo infatti ha una percentuale che va dallo 0,5 all'1 per cento, mentre nella Palestina e nelle regioni mediorientali è del 14-15 per cento.” ↩

4. 12d.

   ZENIT's own narration, not in quotation marks and not Linoli's words.  “A raccontare la storia del miracolo, oltre alla tradizione popolare e alle reliquie, rimangono delle vecchie pergamene risalenti ai secoli XVI e XVII.” ↩

Acutis, Carlo, and Nicola Gori.  “The Eucharistic Miracle of Lanciano, Italy, 750 A.D.”  The Eucharistic Miracles of the World.  Edizioni San Clemente.  2006.  An exhibition poster from The Eucharistic Miracles of the World, designed by Carlo Acutis and Nicola Gori, which dates the Lanciano miracle to 750.  The article uses it as the exhibition's own account of the Lanciano case. ↩

1. 13a.

   “Also, in 1973, the chief Advisory Board of the World Health Organization appointed a scientific commission to corroborate Linoli's findings.  Their work lasted 15 months and included 500 tests ... In the extract summarizing the scientific work of the Medical Commission of the WHO and the UN, published in Dec. 1996 in New York and Geneva, declared that science, aware of its limits, has come to a halt, face to face with the impossibility of giving an explanation.” ↩ ↩

2. 13b.

   “each of the 5 clots of Blood weighs 15.85 grams, which is the identical weight of the 5 clots weighed together!” ↩

3. 13c.

   “The flesh consists of part of the myocardium, more precisely of the left ventricle.  The arteries and veins can be easily identified, as well as a double, slender branch of the vagus nerve.  At the time of the miracle, the flesh was living and then submitted to the law of rigor mortis.”  None of this appears in Linoli 1971, which names no chamber, vessel or nerve. ↩

World Health Organization.  Search of the WHO Institutional Repository for Information Sharing (IRIS).  Sep 14, 2026.  A search of the WHO's own document repository, run on 14 September 2026, for the names in the Lanciano story.  "Linoli" returned 0 records, "Lanciano" 2 records, both false positives on a place or author name, and "eucharistic" 1 OCR artefact.  A filter for items issued in 1971 returns 2,796 items, and the repository holds the Executive Board and World Health Assembly official records, so the empty result is not a gap in coverage, which is the article's point. ↩

Trasancos, Stacy.  “The Fake Lanciano WHO Report.”  Substack.  Aug 12, 2025.  A Substack post arguing that the WHO and UN report cited for the Lanciano miracle is a fraud; the article uses it for Serafini's account of seeing that report in a safe at Lanciano.  It quotes Serafini's book A Cardiologist Examines Jesus (2021) and his 2020 interview with Ray Grijalba.  It was updated on 18 January 2026 to report a private 1977 Linoli letter, which the article does not use because she has not authenticated it. ↩

1. 15a.

   Serafini, as quoted from his book:  “It is a slapdash document clumsily mixing rigorous and well-written scientific data — mostly obtained from Egyptian mummies and not from the tissue specimens of Lanciano — with ramblings supporting the miracle written in a hazy and bombastic Italian.  The damage is enormous:  this 'UN report' pretends in its excerpt to be an original study of the sacred relics, claiming the undertaking of a whopping five hundred analyses on the relics themselves.” ↩

2. 15b.

   From the Grijalba interview as she reports it: after a couple of minutes it was clear the WHO declaration was a.  “terrible fraud, a terrible hoax, very sad.”  The same interview, as she reports it, adds:  “There were hundreds of pages of tests on Egyptian mummies, and the first and last pages were replaced with pages about the Lanciano account.” ↩

3. 15c.

   “There is no chain of custody for these samples.  In my opinion, this fraudulent WHO report undermines the claim of a miracle.” ↩

Springer, Georg F. et al.  “Blood group activity of Gram-negative bacteria.”  Journal of Experimental Medicine 113(6):1077–1093.  Jun 1, 1961.  A laboratory study of 282 aerobic Gram-negative bacteria, many from patients' blood, that measured their A, B and H(O) blood-group activities; almost half were blood-group active, and about 10 per cent were strongly so, in some cases close to crude human blood-group mucoids.  The article uses it because bacteria carry blood-group antigens like those of human blood, ten years before Linoli typed the relic.  Its full text is on PubMed Central as PMC2137423. ↩

1. 16a.

   Page 1091, section Summary:  “Distribution of blood group A, B, and H(O) activities among 282 aerobic Gram-negative bacteria, many isolated from the blood of patients, has been studied.  Almost half of these bacteria were found to be blood group active.  About 10 per cent of the organisms exhibited high, disproportional activities, which in some instances approached those of crude human blood group mucoids.” ↩

2. 16b.

   Page 1079:  “The most commonly observed blood group specificities were H(O) (against eel serum) and B, either alone or in combination.”  Of 31 extra E. coli strains tested for A,  “only 2 of these strains showed A activity (low)”. ↩

Serafini, Franco.  “Praising a glorious page of forensic pathology: a reply to Kelly Kearse.”  Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology 21(4):1943–1946.  Mar 22, 2025.  A commentary by Franco Serafini, online 22 March 2025, that replies to Kelly Kearse's critique of the blood-typing tests used on Christian relics and Eucharistic miracles.  Kearse's rejoinder in the same journal, Scientific analysis of shared AB blood type among relics and eucharistic miracles: A reply to Franco Serafini's commentary, is 22(1):426–428, online 15 April 2025, doi 10.1007/s12024-025-01003-w.  The article uses the reply because it concedes the bacterial mechanism while disputing the conclusion. ↩

1. 17a.

   Section Serafini's abstract:  “The issue of the suboptimal specificity of these tests, due to possible bacterial and fungal contamination, is also acknowledged.” ↩

2. 17b.

   Section Serafini's abstract:  “despite these limitations, the great value demonstrated by these techniques in the reconstruction of the history of the origin of mankind and human migrations should not be ignored, especially given that DNA testing was not yet available in the 1970s and 80s”.  “Control group tissue samples were also extensively used in the analyses of Christian relics”. ↩

3. 17c.

   Section Kearse's abstract:  Kearse says that Serafini.  “makes several assertions regarding the extensive use of control groups that confuse results obtained with relics with those of Eucharistic miracles, which should be considered separately”. ↩

Trasancos, Stacy.  “About the Divine DNA in Buenos Aires.”  God & Elements (Substack).  Aug 27, 2025.  The fifth post in Trasancos's series on Eucharistic miracle data, on the 1996 Buenos Aires case.  Trasancos holds a PhD in chemistry and is a practising Catholic.  The article uses it for the 2000 forensic report, which she reproduces as a scan from Tesoriero's Unseen. ↩

1. 18a.

   Castañón Gómez's doctorate is in clinical psychology; Tesoriero is a lawyer; Willesee was a television journalist.  The investigation began in 1999, three years after the event. ↩

2. 18b.

   The 2000 report as she reads it: the ortho-tolidine test was negative;.  “a very low concentration of human DNA was recovered”.  ; QuantiBlot registered no measurable concentration; the sample.  “contains high molecular weight (good quality) DNA of non-human origin”.  ; and.  “Table 1:  Summary of DNA PCR Typing Results”.  shows NR,  “No Result”.  , at every STR locus. ↩ ↩

3. 18c.

   Castañón Gómez's lecture at the National Shrine of the Divine Mercy, 11 December 2012, as transcribed by Trasancos.  The laboratory said.  “Doctor, we wanted to amplify DNA, and we have no results.  It's because I think the sample you brought was too old, was deteriorated.”  He told the audience:  “They don't know … that that result is the result I need!” ↩ ↩

Trasancos, Stacy.  “Dr. Zugibe and the Living Heart Tissue of the Buenos Aires Eucharistic Miracle Case: Is this true? Calling for clarification.”  God & Elements (Substack).  Nov 19, 2025.  The sixth post in Trasancos's series on Eucharistic miracle data, about Dr Frederick Zugibe's claimed authentication of the Buenos Aires heart tissue.  The family's denial that Zugibe authenticated the case rests on a single self-published post.  The article uses this post for the sequence of histology opinions and for that denial. ↩

1. 19a.

   Lawrence in 2000.  “reported that the material looked like skin with possibly some white blood cells”.  ; Ellis and Loy in 2001.  “concurred that the sample was skin”.  ; Walker.  “said the sample looked like muscle”.  ; Linoli.  “agreed that it was muscle”.  ; then Lawrence.  “changed his mind.  Okay, muscle.” ↩

2. 19b.

   “The forensic lab that did the PCR STR test also viewed the same sample under a microscope.  They reported that they saw 'no identifiable characteristics' in the (very same) sample”. ↩

3. 19c.

   A 2020 Facebook post commented on by Zugibe's widow:  “Dr. Zugibe did not examine or authenticate it and a statement to that effect has been previously issued.”  Beneath it, Catherine Mumma:  “THANK YOU!  I was present when this false claim was started and have tried to stop it.” ↩

Tesoriero, Ron.  “Exaggerations and Eucharistic Miracles but not in Buenos Aires 1996. Comment on Crisis Magazine.”  Reason to Believe.  Jan 21, 2025.  The Buenos Aires investigator's own reply to Trasancos and Kearse, by a lawyer and documentary filmmaker who was central to the case.  It says the Crisis article is incorrect about the case, and the article uses it for Tesoriero's account of the blind test on Zugibe and of the 2016 genetic work. ↩

1. 20a.

   Email of 2 March 2004:  “I am a lawyer.  I am working on a case where I need to identify some material on a microscope slide.  It is a sensitive case.  I will tell you the history after you have given your assessment.” ↩

2. 20b.

   Tesoriero's words about Zugibe's report:  “Zugibe confirms all this in this line of his formal report to me of March 26, 2005, 'Prior to rendering my opinion I was not informed of the history of the material.'” ↩

3. 20c.

   The sample was taken 9 December 2005 and given to Menarini Silicon Biosystems in February 2016.  The cells were isolated with DEPArray and tested with a PowerPlex Fusion 6 nuclear PCR.  “Menarini reported back that it seemed unusual that they were unable to generate a human genetic profile from any of those cells.” ↩ ↩

4. 20d.

   Menarini, as Tesoriero quotes it:  “we were able to get good mitochondrial data ... We got unprecedent results in the history of Forensic DNA testing”.  Tesoriero's summary, so that the person would appear to.  “Have no human genetic code from the Nucleus of the cell”.  but.  “does have impressive results from Mitochondrial DNA testing done on the Control Region of the human genome.” ↩

Real Presence Association, and Edizioni San Clemente.  “Eucharistic Miracle of Tixtla, Mexico, October 21, 2006.”  The Eucharistic Miracles of the World, Vatican International Exhibition.  2013.  A panel from the Vatican International Exhibition on the host of Tixtla, Mexico.  It lists research from October 2009 to October 2012 and gives its findings: a reddish substance that is human blood with human DNA, of blood type AB, and heart muscle.  The article quotes the panel's claims and its admission that no genetic profile was ever obtained. ↩

1. 21a.

   Page 2:  “When there is the presence of human DNA one thinks that also the genetic profile can be automatically obtained.  Interestingly in all the studies performed on the images that sweated blood or in the consecrated Hosts that have bled the presence of DNA was found, but when the work of sequencing to extract the genetic profile was done, they were never able to obtain it.  The theologians say that since Jesus does not have a father, his father is the Holy Spirit, it is not possible to obtain his genetic profile.” ↩

2. 21b.

   Page 2:  Conclusion 1 of the panel.  “The reddish substance analyzed corresponds to blood in which there are hemoglobin and DNA of human origin.” ↩

3. 21c.

   Page 2:  Bishop Zavala Castro's three findings of 12 October 2013.  “- The event does not have a natural explanation.  - It does not have paranormal origin.  - It is not traceable to manipulation of the enemy.” ↩

4. 21d.

   Page 2:  “3.  The blood type is AB, similar to the one found in the Host of Lanciano and in the Holy Shroud of Turin.”  “7.  The immunohistochemical studies reveal that the tissue found corresponds to the muscle of the heart (Myocardium).” ↩

Trasancos, Stacy.  “Exaggerations and Eucharistic Miracles.”  Crisis Magazine.  Dec 23, 2024.  An opinion piece in Crisis Magazine, an editorially published Catholic magazine, that calls the claims about bleeding hosts and divine DNA unsubstantiated.  It is the piece that Tesoriero answered, and the article uses it for the Tixtla DNA result. ↩

1. 22a.

   “Only the Buenos Aires and the Tixtla samples underwent a forensic DNA test, known as an amplified PCR (polymerase chain reaction) test. ... For the Tixtla sample, no human DNA could be detected at all.” ↩ ↩

Nieśpiał, Tomasz.  “Co się naprawdę stało w Sokółce.”  Rzeczpospolita.  Oct 27, 2009.  A Polish newspaper report, titled in English "What really happened in Sokółka", and the only reporting on any case that interviewed the laboratory's management.  It quotes Lech Chyczewski, head of the department where the sample was examined, who says the test was done informally and doubts that the tissue was heart muscle.  The article uses it for the gap in the sample's custody, the informal test and the archbishop's lack of interest in a DNA test. ↩

1. 23a.

   Section Odkrycie proboszcza:  “O tym, co dokładnie działo się przez kolejne dwa miesiące, kanclerz nie informuje.”  In English: "The chancellor gives no information about what exactly happened over the next two months." ↩

2. 23b.

   Section Mięsień sercowy czy szkieletowy:  Lech Chyczewski said:  “próbkę z Sokółki przebadano nieformalnie.  Pismo z kurii nie było bowiem adresowane ani do kierownictwa ośrodka, ani do zakładu, tylko bezpośrednio do prof. Sobaniec-Łotowskiej.”  In English: "the Sokółka sample was examined informally.  The letter from the curia was addressed neither to the management of the centre nor to the department, but directly to Prof. Sobaniec-Łotowska." ↩

3. 23c.

   Section Mięsień sercowy czy szkieletowy:  “Sobaniec-Łotowska przeprowadziła najprostsze badanie histopatologiczne, które pozwala określić, z jaką tkanką ma się do czynienia, ale w żadnym razie nie przesądza, czy pochodzi ona od człowieka.”  In English: "Sobaniec-Łotowska carried out the simplest histopathological examination, which allows one to determine what tissue one is dealing with, but in no way settles whether it comes from a human." ↩

4. 23d.

   Section Mięsień sercowy czy szkieletowy:  Lech Chyczewski said:  “Z tego, co mówił, nie wynikało jednoznacznie, że jądra rozmieszczone były centralnie.  Powiedziałbym nawet, że to, co usłyszałem od prof. Sulkowskiego, wskazywało, iż mamy do czynienia raczej z mięśniem szkieletowym.”  In English: "From what he said it did not follow unambiguously that the nuclei were centrally placed.  I would even say that what I heard from Prof. Sulkowski indicated that we are dealing rather with skeletal muscle." ↩

5. 23e.

   Section Arcybiskup: musimy uszanować świętość:  Karol Śliwka, head of the forensic medicine department in Bydgoszcz, said:  “Badanie DNA precyzyjnie wskazałoby, czy tkanka, która została przebadana, jest ludzka czy zwierzęca i czy to materiał męski czy żeński.”  In English: "A DNA test would precisely indicate whether the tissue examined is human or animal and whether the material is male or female." ↩

6. 23f.

   Section Arcybiskup: musimy uszanować świętość:  Lech Chyczewski said:  “Arcybiskup nie był zainteresowany przeprowadzeniem takich badań.  Usłyszałem, że skoro zachodzi okoliczność cudownego pochodzenia tego materiału, to nie należy już tego męczyć.”  In English: "The archbishop was not interested in carrying out such tests.  I was told that since the circumstance of the miraculous origin of this material obtains, it should not be tormented any further." ↩ ↩

7. 23g.

   Section Arcybiskup: musimy uszanować świętość:  Archbishop Edward Ozorowski, in an interview with the tabloid Fakt, said:  “Jeśli mamy do czynienia z fragmentem Ciała Chrystusa, to byłoby nawet niewskazane z powodu czci, jaką powinniśmy to Ciało otoczyć.”  In English: "If we are dealing with a fragment of the Body of Christ, then it would even be inadvisable, because of the reverence with which we ought to surround that Body." ↩

Jacyna-Onyszkiewicz, Zbigniew et al.  “Eucharystyczne trwanie z perspektywy nauk ścisłych.”  Teologia i Człowiek 43(3):81–99.  2018.  A Polish article in a theology quarterly by five authors, among them a quantum physicist, a pathologist and the chancellor of the Metropolitan Curia, Ks. Andrzej Kakareko.  Part of it reviews the scientific examination of the Sokółka Eucharistic miracle, and its main evidence that the material is human heart muscle is the central position of the cell nuclei.  The article uses it for the 2009 sampling by the pathologist, the conditional wording of the protocol, and the paper's own concession that Eucharistic events have no set examination procedure. ↩

1. 24a.

   Pages 85–86:  “On 7 January 2009 Prof. Maria E. Sobaniec-Łotowska, in accordance with the principles of scientific integrity, in commission, in the presence of the Chancellor of the Metropolitan Curia Fr. Prof. Andrzej Kakareko, took from the corporal a sample”.  The Polish original reads: "W dniu 7 stycznia 2009 r. prof. dr hab. Maria E. Sobaniec-Łotowska, zgodnie z zasadami rzetelności naukowej, komisyjnie, w obecności Kanclerza Kurii Metropolitalnej ks. prof. Andrzeja Kakareki, pobrała z korporału próbkę". ↩

2. 24b.

   Page 86:  Quoting the protocol of 21 January 2009:  “Przysłany do oceny materiał [...] wskazuje na tkankę mięśnia sercowego, a przynajmniej ze wszystkich tkanek żywych organizmu najbardziej ją przypomina”.  In English:  “The material sent for assessment ... indicates cardiac muscle tissue, or at least, of all the living tissues of the organism, most resembles it.” ↩

3. 24c.

   Page 87:  The Polish original reads: "Ważnym dowodem na to, iż badany materiał jest mięśniem ludzkiego serca, było głównie centralne ułożenie jąder komórkowych w obserwowanych włóknach".  “An important proof that the examined material is human heart muscle was mainly the central position of the cell nuclei in the observed fibres”. ↩

4. 24d.

   Page 85:  Footnote 8 says that canonisation law has strictly defined methods; the Polish original reads: "ale w przypadku wydarzeń Eucharystycznych takich procedur nie ma".  “but in the case of Eucharistic events there are no such procedures.” ↩

“Uniwersytet medyczny odcina się od cudu w Sokółce. Nielegalne badanie Hostii.”  Kurier Poranny.  Oct 30, 2009.  A Polish newspaper report in which the Medical University of Białystok distances itself from the examination of the Sokółka host.  The article uses it for the spokesman's view that the examinations were carried out by serious scientists. ↩

1. 25a.

   “Badanie tkanki z Hostii odbyło się bez wiedzy i zgody uczelni - powiedział Lech Chyczewski, rzecznik Uniwersytetu Medycznego w Białymstoku.”  In English: "The examination of the tissue from the Host took place without the knowledge and consent of the university, said Lech Chyczewski, spokesman of the Medical University of Białystok." ↩

2. 25b.

   Lech Chyczewski said:  “Nie widziałem pobranej tkanki, nie mogę się na ten temat wypowiadać.  Ale badania przeprowadzali poważni naukowcy”.  In English: "I did not see the tissue that was taken, I cannot comment on it.  But the examinations were carried out by serious scientists". ↩

Wirtualna Polska.  “Naukowcy: badania hostii z Sokółki nie były nierzetelne!”  Wirtualna Polska.  Nov 4, 2009.  A Polish news report of 4 November 2009 that paraphrases a joint statement by the two analysts, Maria Sobaniec-Łotowska and Stanisław Sulkowski, who had found fragments of heart muscle on a host from the Sokółka church and stood by their results.  It answers critics who called the tests pseudoscientific, and the article cites it for the analysts' reply to them. ↩

1. 26a.

   The article's paraphrase of the analysts' joint statement, not their own sentence; in English: "suggestions of unreliable tests are often spread by people who frequently do not possess elementary knowledge of the research techniques used".  “sugestie dotyczące nierzetelnych badań niejednokrotnie rozpowszechniane są przez osoby, które często nie dysponują elementarną wiedzą dotyczącą zastosowanych technik badawczych”. ↩

Real Presence Association, and Edizioni San Clemente.  “Eucharistic Miracle of Sokółka, Poland, October 12, 2008.”  The Eucharistic Miracles of the World, Vatican International Exhibition.  2009.  A panel from the Vatican International Exhibition on the host of Sokółka, carrying a 2006 copyright line.  It reports the January 2009 examination by two pathology professors of the Medical University of Białystok, who found heart muscle that was still alive and argued that a bacterial cause would have left the sample crumbled and changed in appearance.  The article uses it for Professor Sulkowski's answer to the mould hypothesis. ↩

1. 27a.

   Page 2:  Said by Professor Sulkowski.  “This signifies that if the miracle were due to a bacterium, the material would have disintegrated, crumbled and would have changed appearance.  Any microbial culture, even placed on the cleanest possible material, after a single week appears completely different”. ↩

TVN24 Wrocław.  “'Zleciliśmy badania, aby uzyskać pewność moralną'. Nowe fakty o cudzie w Legnicy.”  TVN24.  Apr 12, 2016.  A Polish-language news report of the diocese's own press conference, which quotes the commission's cardiologist, Dr Barbara Engel, and Fr Tadeusz Dąbski of the church court.  The article uses it for the host's timeline, the Wrocław and Szczecin laboratory results, and the fifteen controls. ↩

1. 28a.

   Section Obraz trudny do identyfikacji:  “Wśród szeregu badań przeprowadzono też sprawdzenie DNA.  Tego jednak w hostii nie stwierdzono.”  In English:  “Among the series of tests a DNA check was also carried out.  None, however, was found in the host.” ↩ ↩

2. 28b.

   Section Obraz trudny do identyfikacji:  “Wybarwiała się natomiast grzybnia, która temu towarzyszyła – mówiła kardiolog.”  In English:  “'The mycelium that accompanied it, however, did stain,' said the cardiologist.” ↩

3. 28c.

   Section Obraz trudny do identyfikacji:  “Istniała natomiast silna sugestia, że w obrazie histologicznym mamy do czynienia z silnie zautolizowaną tkanką mięśnia sercowego”.  In English:  “There was, however, a strong suggestion that in the histological image we are dealing with strongly autolysed cardiac muscle tissue”. ↩

4. 28d.

   Section Szczecińskie badania dały pewność:  “naukowcy mieli do dyspozycji te same preparaty, które sporządzono wcześniej”.  In English:  “the scientists had at their disposal the same preparations that had been made earlier.”  The confirmation was.  “pod mikroskopem UV w pomarańczowym filtrze”.  In English: under a UV microscope with an orange filter. ↩

5. 28e.

   Section Szczecińskie badania dały pewność:  Fr Tadeusz Dąbski, of the church court,  “przyznał, że prowadzący badania naukowcy mieli świadomość skąd pochodzą preparaty”.  In English:  “admitted that the scientists directing the research were aware of where the preparations came from”. ↩

6. 28f.

   “Naukowcy pobrali 15 próbek, m.in. fragment konsekrowanej hostii, płyn z kielicha, a także wino mszalne i wodę z kranu, której użyto do napełnienia kielicha.”  In English: fifteen samples including a fragment of the consecrated host, liquid from the chalice, altar wine, and.  “the tap water used to fill the chalice”. ↩

7. 28g.

   Fr Andrzej Ziombra said the priest.  “nie do końca miał czucie w palcach”.  In English:  “did not fully have feeling in his fingers”.  The host fell 25 December 2013; discolouration was noticed 4 January 2014; fragment separated February 2014. ↩

Andrzejewski, Andrzej.  “Cud w Legnicy: Oto opinia specjalistów z Zakładu Medycyny Sądowej.”  Radio Wrocław.  Apr 12, 2016.  A Radio Wrocław report, in Polish, that carries the full text of Bishop Kiernikowski's communiqué of 10 April 2016 on the Legnica host.  It gives the Szczecin forensic opinion, which found fragments of striated muscle most like heart muscle and said that genetic tests indicate human origin, and it notes that the Wrocław scientists had found no material of human origin.  The article uses it for both points. ↩

1. 29a.

   “Wcześniej sprawą zajmowali się naukowcy z Wrocławia.  Oni jednak w materiałach nie znaleźli materiałów pochodzenia ludzkiego.”  English translation: "Earlier the matter had been handled by scientists from Wrocław.  They, however, found no materials of human origin in the materials." ↩

2. 29b.

   The bishop's communiqué:  “które ma znamiona cudu eucharystycznego”.  English translation: "which bears the marks of a Eucharistic miracle".  Quoting the Szczecin opinion, with the bishop's own ellipses:  “Całość obrazu (...) jest najbardziej podobna do mięśnia sercowego”.  English translation: "The whole image (...) is most similar to cardiac muscle".  “Badania genetyczne wskazują na ludzkie pochodzenie tkanki.”  English translation: "Genetic tests indicate the human origin of the tissue." ↩

Virgolini, Irene et al.  “Reality or Fiction of the 'Real Presence' of Jesus Christ in the Holy Eucharist?”  Annals of Case Reports 8:1289.  May 5, 2023.  A case report by scientists at the Medical Universities of Innsbruck and Vienna on a host that turned partly red in a Franciscan church at Schwaz, Tyrol, in 2016.  Its authors found bacterial and fungal contamination but no solid proof of mammalian tissue, and Cornelia Lass-Flörl, of the Department of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology in Innsbruck, is thanked in the acknowledgement for the bacterial and microorganism examination rather than bylined, and the journal prints a second citation line that adds her.  The article cites it for its named methods and organisms; the paper was received 24 April, accepted 1 May and published 5 May 2023 in a low-profile journal, and it was republished as Annals of Clinical and Medical Case Reports 11(3):1–6 on 4 August 2023. ↩

1. 30a.

   Section Abstract:  “we discovered bacterial and fungal contamination of the host (wafer), but no solid proof of mammalian tissue was evidenced by histopathology in 2021.” ↩

2. 30b.

   Section Bacterial and Microorganism Examination:  “All samples were culture-positive with Bacillus flexus, Hydrogenophaga pseudoflava, Arthrobacter pascens and Pseudarthrobacter sulfonivorans being detected.” ↩

3. 30c.

   Section Gross and Pathohistological Examination:  “The prepared slides showed myriades of hyphae and spores, some of them pigmented.” ↩

4. 30d.

   Section Gross and Pathohistological Examination:  “At the periphery of the mycelium and focal within the mycelium there were eosinophilic roundish structures approximately 4 to 5 µm in size ... most likely fungal spores”.  The Figure 3 legend floats the alternative that they "may represent degenerated erythrocytes". ↩

5. 30e.

   Section Gross check and Genetic Analysis:  “The Franciscan fathers neglected to provide further material of the host as the rest of the host had already been put into a monstrance in May 2021.” ↩ ↩

6. 30f.

   Section Discussion:  On St Paul, Minnesota, 2011:  “It was later revealed that the wafer changed color due to a fungus and not Jesus.” ↩

QIAGEN.  “FAQ-45: What are the expected DNA yields from different tissues using the QIAamp DNA Mini Kit?”  QIAGEN Resources.  n.d.  Retrieved Sep 14, 2026.  A manufacturer's document giving the company's own yield table for its QIAamp DNA Mini Kit.  The article uses the heart row to set the expected yield from fresh heart tissue. ↩

1. 31a.

   Table Yield table:  “Heart (25 mg)”.  Its figure of 25–45 µg is in the column.  “Nucleic acid yield without RNase A treatment”.  and its figure of 5–10 µg is in the column.  “DNA yield with RNase A treatment”.  The second column is the one that matters for STR typing: 5–10 µg per 25 mg is 200–400 ng per mg.  For comparison, the row.  “Blood (200 µl)  4–12”.  appears in both columns. ↩

Promega Corporation.  “PowerPlex® ESX 17 Fast System for Use on the Applied Biosystems® Genetic Analyzers.”  Technical Manual TMD040.  Revised 10/23 edition.  2023.  The manufacturer's own statement of the optimal amount of DNA template for the kit.  The article uses it for the 0.5 ng template amount that the kit is balanced for. ↩

1. 32a.

   Section 4.A, Amplification of Extracted DNA in a 25µl Reaction Volume:  “The PowerPlex® ESX 17 Fast System is optimized and balanced for 0.5ng of DNA template.” ↩

Onofri, Martina et al.  “The Usefulness of qPCR Data for Sample Pre-Assessment and Interpretation of Genetic Typing Results.”  Genes 15(6):744.  2024.  A journal paper in Genes, which the article cites for the DNA concentration that a forensic kit works best at.  It is also in PubMed Central as PMC11203103. ↩

1. 33a.

   Section 2.1:  The five dilutions were chosen.  “to be equal to or below the optimal DNA concentration for the PowerPlex® ESX-17 Fast System (0.05 ng/μL)”.  The paper gives the concentration, not the template volume.  The 0.5 ng mass is Promega's own figure, from the Promega manual cited in the article. ↩

Bizio, Bartolomeo.  “Bartolomeo Bizio's Letter to the most Eminent Priest, Angelo Bellani, Concerning the Phenomenon of the Red Colored Polenta.”  Journal of Bacteriology 9(6):527–543.  Translated by Clara Pinto Merlino.  1823 (edition of 1924).  A letter of 1823 from Bartolomeo Bizio to the priest Angelo Bellani about the red colored polenta, here in an English translation by Clara Pinto Merlino.  The translation appeared in the Journal of Bacteriology in November 1924.  The article uses it for the natural explanation of the red polenta, worked out two centuries ago in a Catholic country. ↩

1. 34a.

   Page 529:  “the stupor and marvel, and even fear, of the peasants who considered the coloring of diabolical origin, calling the phenomenon the 'bloody polenta.'  Indeed their fear was so great that they would not live under the same roof where such supernatural influences were operating.  They turned thence to the priests imploring them to banish such maleficent spirits.” ↩

2. 34b.

   Page 531:  “At 11:00 in the morning of the following day, there appeared on the surface of the polenta some red spots, which multiplied so rapidly that the whole surface was colored by the evening of the same day — less than forty-eight hours from the time the experiment was begun.”  The letter's figure of 21° Reaumur on this page is 26.3 °C. ↩

3. 34c.

   Page 541:  “The pigment is insoluble in water, and is dissolved readily in alcohol, even at ordinary temperatures.” ↩

Mahlen, Steven D.  “Serratia Infections: from Military Experiments to Current Practice.”  Clinical Microbiology Reviews 24(4):755–791.  Oct 2011.  A review article in Clinical Microbiology Reviews on Serratia infections, from military experiments to current practice.  Its background section says that the bacterium S. marcescens grows on starchy foods such as bread and can be mistaken for fresh blood.  The article uses it for that background and for its point that references to 'bleeding' hosts are not entirely ancient. ↩

1. 35a.

   Page 756:  “Ehrenberg and other investigators described the propensity of S. marcescens to grow on starchy foods, such as bread, and how this growth could be mistaken for fresh blood, especially in times before microorganisms were understood.” ↩

2. 35b.

   Page 757:  “Many other events of miraculous, 'bleeding' bread have apparently occurred throughout history, many of which are associated with the Host of Christianity.  References to the 'bleeding' of the Host are not entirely ancient;  Breed and Breed described an incident that presumably occurred in Naples in 1910 or 1911 of 'bleeding Host' in one of the local churches.” ↩

Salazar Celedón, Rodrigo, and Leticia Barrientos Díaz.  “Natural Pigments of Bacterial Origin and Their Possible Biomedical Applications.”  Microorganisms 9(4):739.  2021.  A journal article on pigments that bacteria make and whether they could be used in medicine.  The article uses it for the chemistry of prodigiosin, the red pigment of Serratia marcescens, and the other bacteria that make it. ↩

1. 36a.

   Section § 7, Prodigiosins:  The subject is the tripyrrole.  “gives the reddish pigmentation during the stationary phase of bacterial growth.” ↩

2. 36b.

   Section § 7:  “was first characterized from Serratia marcescens”.  Prodigiosin also occurs in Janthinobacterium, Streptomyces, Vibrio, Hahella, Zooshikella and Pseudoalteromonas. ↩

Yabe, Suzuka, and Jun Fukushima.  “Complete Genome Sequence of Temperature-Dependent Pigment-Producing Serratia marcescens ATCC 274.”  Microbiology Resource Announcements 9(15):e00164–20.  Apr 9, 2020.  A report of the complete DNA sequence, or genome, of one strain of Serratia marcescens, a bacterium that makes a red pigment.  Its abstract says the strain makes the pigment at 30°C but not at 37°C, close to body temperature.  The article cites it for that temperature effect on the pigment. ↩

1. 37a.

   Section Abstract:  “Serratia marcescens ATCC 274 produces the red pigment prodigiosin and the biosurfactant serrawettin W1 at 30°C but not at 37°C.” ↩

Afroz Toma, Maria et al.  “Fungal Pigments: Carotenoids, Riboflavin, and Polyketides with Diverse Applications.”  Journal of Fungi 9(4):454.  2023.  A paper on the pigments that fungi make, such as carotenoids, riboflavin and polyketides, and what they are used for.  The article uses it for which fungi make red pigments.  Its full text is on PubMed Central as PMC10141606. ↩

1. 38a.

   Section Abstract:  “Filamentous fungi, particularly ascomycetous fungi (Monascus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Aspergillus), have been shown to produce secondary metabolites containing a wide variety of pigments”.  Section 4:  “A further potential producer of naphthoquinone pigment, Epicoccum nigrum, has been investigated for prospective large-scale production on rice-based media in both liquid and solid form.”  Section 4.1.5–4.1.6:  torulene and torularhodin from.  “Dioszegia, Rhodotorula, Sporidiobolus, Cystophilobasidium, Neurospora, Rhodosporidium, and Sporobolomyces.” ↩

Gillen, Alan L., and Rebekah Gibbs.  “Serratia marcescens: The Miracle Bacillus.”  Answers in Depth.  Answers in Genesis.  Jul 20, 2011.  An article by a creationist microbiologist on Serratia marcescens, the bacterium whose red pigment, prodigiosin, has been mistaken for blood on bread and communion wafers.  Gillen dates Bizio's experiment to 1817, but Bizio's own letter puts it in 1819.  The article cites it for the history and the microbiology only, not for its design argument. ↩

1. 39a.

   Section History:  “Neither Peter the Priest nor Pope Urban knew that S. marcescens was the probable cause of this crimson-colored substance.” ↩

“Eucharistic Miracle of Santarém, 1247.”  The Eucharistic Miracles of the World.  2006.  Header:  “SANTARÉM, PORTUGAL, 1247”.  The body dates the event to 16 February 1266.  “according to the date recorded in the document commissioned by King Alfonso IV in 1346”.  The text of a display panel from the travelling exhibition The Eucharistic Miracles of the World, on the Santarém case.  It says that numerous studies and canonical analysis were carried out on the relics, but claims no physical examination of the relic itself.  The article uses its three dates for one event: 1247 in the title, 1266 in the narrative and 1346 for the earliest document. ↩

Rubin, Miri.  Gentile Tales: The Narrative Assault on Late Medieval Jews.  Yale University Press.  1999.  A book about the stories told against Jews in late medieval times, in which Jews were said to obtain the consecrated host and attack it.  The article uses it for the third type of miracle story, an accusation against Jews. ↩

1. 41a.

   Page 1:  “The narrative studied in this book was new, born around the end of the thirteenth century and re-enacted tens of times in the two centuries that followed.” ↩

2. 41b.

   Page 1:  “the host desecration narrative opened with a Jew's intention to procure the consecrated host, worked its way through a series of cruel Jewish attacks on the host, climaxed in the manifestations of eucharistic power through the show of blood or flesh, and ended with punishment of the Jew and recovery into cultic triumph of the, now miraculous, host.” ↩

3. 41c.

   Page 43:  “The Jew was found guilty (presumably of sacrilege) and was released to the secular authority for burning ... The book and the Jew were burnt to ashes, while his wife and children converted”. ↩

4. 41d.

   Page 56:  “A charter of October 1338 pardoned the leaders of the killing, Hartwig of Deggenberg and Konrad Freiberger, and released the townsmen from debts to the killed and dispersed Jews.” ↩

Rubin, Miri.  Corpus Christi: The Eucharist in Late Medieval Culture.  Cambridge University Press.  1991.  A book on the Eucharist in late medieval culture.  The article uses it for Rubin's view that linking the feast to the Bolsena miracle is misplaced. ↩

1. 42a.

   Page 176:  “The attempt to link the foundation directly to the alleged miracle of Bolsena whose traditions are known only from the fourteenth century seems, therefore, to be perhaps misplaced.  Transiturus relates itself in word and in gesture to a pre-history of the feast far from Orvieto.” ↩

Acutis, and Gori.  “Eucharistic Miracle of Bolsena, 1263.”  The Eucharistic Miracles of the World.  Istituto San Clemente I Papa e Martire.  2006.  A text panel from the exhibition The Eucharistic Miracles of the World, on the 1263 miracle at Bolsena.  It names the reliquary of the Corporal, made by the studio of Ugolino di Ilario in 1338, as the earliest dated object from the case.  The article uses it for the claim that the exhibition's earliest dated Bolsena artefact is that 1338 reliquary. ↩

Acutis, and Gori.  “Eucharistic Miracle of Ferrara, 1171.”  The Eucharistic Miracles of the World.  2006.  A text panel from the exhibition The Eucharistic Miracles of the World, on the Ferrara case of 28 March 1171.  It says a 1197 manuscript of Gerardo Cambrense at Lambeth Library is the oldest document mentioning the event, citing Antonio Samaritani on the Gemma Ecclesiastica.  The article uses it as a case that may escape the pattern, since its earliest document is a 1197 manuscript, not a source written centuries later. ↩

Acutis, and Gori.  “Eucharistic Miracle of Siena, 1730.”  The Eucharistic Miracles of the World.  2006.  A text panel from the exhibition The Eucharistic Miracles of the World, on the Siena case, in which 223 consecrated hosts are said to have stayed intact for 276 years.  It reports that Archbishop Tiberio Borghese sealed unconsecrated hosts in a tin box for ten years, and that the commission found only worms and rotted fragments when the box was reopened.  The article uses it as the claimed control for the 1730 hosts, though a sealed damp tin is not the same storage as an open ciborium in a dry church. ↩

Isailă, Oana-Maria et al.  “Postmortem Immunohistochemical Findings in Early Acute Myocardial Infarction: A Systematic Review.”  International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25(14):7625.  Jul 11, 2024.  A systematic review, a study that gathers and compares published work, of postmortem immunohistochemistry (antibody staining of tissue after death) in early acute myocardial infarction, which is a heart attack.  The article cites it for two points:  how fast desmin, a protein inside heart cells, is lost after the cells are injured, and how short a time, about two days, post-mortem markers resist autolysis (self-digestion of tissue after death). ↩

1. 46a.

   Section 2.4:  “In myocardial ischemia, the depletion of desmin from the cytoplasm of the heart cell begins 30 min after the onset of ischemia, and within 90–120 min, depletion is complete.” ↩

2. 46b.

   Section 3.2:  On Hu et al.'s heart fragments stored at 4 °C:  “the markers being resistant to autolysis only for an interval of 2 days postmortem.” ↩